The power of Media within Sports Industry Research Paper

The power of Media within Sports Industry - Research Paper Example â€Å"Every piece of fur is the result of horrific cruelty. Animals trapped for their fur can suffer for hours or days in body-gripping traps, chewing through their own feet in a desperate attempt to escape. More than four million wild animals are trapped and killed each year in the United States by commercial and recreational trappers alone.  Ã¢â‚¬Å"(The Cruelty of Fur Trim) The way human beings treat animals is certainly beyond the pale, animals are ruthlessly killed to please the taste buds of certain human beings who consume them on a regular basis, the slaughter that takes place is very painful for the helpless animals, the pain inflicted upon them is very hard to see but very little has been done to counter it. There are organizations fighting for animal rights but those organizations are not as active as they should be. This paper will throw light upon the views of Catharine A. Mackinnon and Elizabeth Anderson on how animals are being treated; both their views will be juxta posed to bring out the real essence of their respective arguments. â€Å"Each year, in China, millions of dogs and cats are cruelly killed by bludgeoning, hanging and slow strangulation with wire nooses and their fur turned into trim and trinkets. Chinese fur is often deliberately mislabeled so that it will be bought by unsuspecting customers around the globe.† (China’s Gold Medal for Cruelty). Catharine A. Mackinnon has a very feminist view on the exploitation of animals, she compares the state of animals to the state of women, she thinks that women and animals are both exploited and have more similarities than one. She claims that animals are treated like women and women like animals, this again goes to show the sheer exploitation of both women and animals. She goes on to say that women are as badly treated as animals, she is aghast when she makes this comparison and she is right in many ways, women are still being exploited in some areas of the world and so are anim als. â€Å"People dominate animals, men dominate women.† (Animal Rights, P277) The author sheds light upon how women and animals are being dominated in our society. She throws light upon the inequality that prevails in our society. The author brings out an excellent ideology; the suppression of both women and animals is because they are considered inferior, women are exploited because they are considered biologically weaker, animals are exploited because they are considered much inferior to the human race, the exploitation is purely based on the ideology of inferior and superior, a superior being starts believing that it is his right to suppress the inferior, the same has been highlighted by the author. The author is labeled to be a feminist because she talks about the male ideology and brings out the similarities in animals and women. â€Å"Qualities considered human and higher are denied to animals as qualities considered masculine and higher are denied to women.† (A nimal Rights, P278) The lesser humanity of women is conceded by men and they call women animal names like chick, bunny, bitch and so on, this again points to the inferior nature of women in the society, animals are lower than humans is also a presumption which with several human beings live with. The author also talks about the ridiculous ways in which both women and animals are exploited, rats are put in the vagina of women and it is thought that the rat would suffer

Nazism vs. Fascism Essay Example for Free

Nazism vs. Fascism Essay R.Q.: To what extent were the German and Italian regimes under Hitler and Mussolini Totalitarian? i. Why? With this research I want to discover whether Hitler and Mussolini transformed Germany and Italy, respectively into Totalitarian regimes. In my discretion this played a major role when looking at traditions, respectability of countries and reputations of countries. Such emotions can also trigger wars, as we so in WWII. Initially, I feel that Dictatorships having absolute power over a country can cause many inconveniences for the citizens of it. Hence, I want to understand their motives and ambitions. Also, I figure that this is a very important time period in which milestones and new dimensions have been opened. Thirdly, I decided on this topic because I am a German citizen, who is naturally interested in the background and history of ones father country. ii. What? I am going to use a series of books written in different time periods by different writers from different countries. This shows a certain scope of viewpoints, which makes the answer to this question more objective. I am also going to use the Internet as one research option of my internal assessment. iii. I planned my essay. This can be seen in the appendix, 1) Essay Plan. This plan shows how I am going to attempt to accomplish my Task i. Define Nazism a. Nazism is the body of political and economic doctrines held and put into effect by the National Socialist German Workers Party in the Third Reich including the totalitarian principle of government, state control of all industries, predominance of groups assumed to be racially superior, and supremacy of the Fà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½hrer1. ii. Define Fascism a. Fascism is a political philosophy, movement, or regime (as that of the Fascisti) that exalts nation and often race above the individual and that stands for a centralized autocratic government headed by a dictatorial leader, severe economic and social regimentation, and forcible suppression of opposition2. iii. Define Totalitarian a. Totalitarian is defined as of or relating to centralized control by an autocratic leader or hierarchy. Of or relating to a political regime based on subordination of the individual to the state and strict control of all aspects of the life and productive capacity of the nation especially by coercive measures (as censorship and terrorism)3 iv. All these definitions above are essential in order to understand how totalitarianism is initially linked with Nazism and Fascism. These terms, Nazism Fascism and Totalitarianism have all got the subordination of the individual to the state and the control of mind etc. of the individual in common. The difference between them, however is that Totalitarian is purely a term describing a situation, a current state of something. Nazism and Fascism on the other hand, describe an ideology that developed over centuries and eventually ruled a country. When we are looking at these definitions, we discover, that both ideologies have a feature of totalitarianism innate. Therefore, initially we would say that they the states, Germany and Italy, both are totalitarian because the autocracy by which they are ruled is totalitarian. This must mean that the people believe in it because they elected this system of government, and hence the system must be totalitarian. This, however, is debatable. In the ongoing lines I will question the above statement by looking closer at the two ideologies and how they became elected. i. Discrimination of Minorities a. Germany i. Minorities, such as Jews, Blacks, Gypsies and women were discriminated widely. Anything not of Aryan derivation, was inferior. Women, for example, were expected to behave just like K,K,K-meaning Kinder, Kirche, Kà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½che. Translated, Children, Church, Kitchen. In other words, they were expected to have as many children as possible to expand the Aryan race, support the religion and cook well. Jews, of course, were treated the worst, i.e.: concentration camps. b. Italy i. Fascist Policy towards women was condescending. Women were not put equal to men. It was also anti-urban and anti-consumerist. There was birth control and additional taxes on unmarried. This, in a way, was similar to Nazi Germany, where there were incentives to bear as many children as possible. It aimed to promote the superior race. Fascist policy was at the beginning not racially concerned. However, when relations with Germany improved, Mussolini adopted some anti-foreign steps. This aimed to give the people a feeling of superiority over other nations and should promote the will to fight for the cause of the nation. Employment conditions for female workers were restricted. They were excluded from several workplaces. ii. Church a. Germany i. Germany was almost entirely a Christian country. Hitler realised this and did not underestimate the power the church, as a single institution, could have on the peoples minds. Therefore, he knew it would not be wise to attack the church during his campaigns. Hence, he made an agreement with the church, the Concordat, which granted the church religious freedom. This, however was only superficially. In reality, any member of the church speaking bad about Hitler or his party, NSDAP, was prosecuted or sent to a concentration camp. Even Church schools were influenced by Hitler; the bible was replaced by Mein Kampf and the cross by the swastika. b. Italy i. In Italy the church played a more important role than in Germany because of the Pope and the Vatican being situated in Italy. Hence, Mussolini tried, after 1922 when coming to power, to include the church as much as possible in the fascist state in order to stabilise and ensure power for his party, PNF. Catholicism was also seen as a possible threat to the emerging fascist state. Hence, a concordat was attempted to improve church-state relations. Catholicism was considered the religion of most Italians, which was so deeply rooted in Italian life that could directly endanger the position of the fascist might. iii. Education a. Germany i. Education in Germany was largely controlled by the Nazis. The main subjects were history, biology and physical education. All of course indoctrinated and altered to shine a good light on the Nazi party and its style of rule. Special schools were build for the most talented. This meant that from a very young age onwards, children in Germany were focused on the Nazi ideology, similar to the Youths, which I will talk about in the next paragraph. b. Italy i. Education was focused on Fascist ideas and ideology. Children were educated in physical education and military training. These are just examples to illustrate what Mussolini wanted to achieve. iv. Youths a. Germany i. Various youths existed in Nazi Germany, all aiming to control the mind of German children. Hitler once described his views concerning the purpose of youths: When an opponent declares, I will not come your side, I calmly say: Your child belongs to us alreadyIn a short time, they will know nothing else but this community. These programs existed for boys and girls. Boys camps were more physical, preparing for war. Girls camps were aiming to make them strong to bear many healthy children. b. Italy i. From 1929 onwards, Mussolini focused more intensely on the control of children in his regime. He wanted to control them by education, which he stated as a right of the leading body in a totalitarian state. The Ministry of Public Instructions was changed to the Ministry of National education (ONB) in 1929. This new organisation provided pre-military training, drill and gym. All measures to convey a more aggressive and disciplined way of live. This program was even integrated into the school curriculum. Recruitment was thus made very easy and numerous. The Fascists wanted to create an Italy were there were young courageous men willing to fight for the cause of the nation. Their motto was: Believe, Obey, Fight. This displays exactly what Mussolini was after. Especially during the great depression, Mussolini tried to give his people a cause to believe in. He created groups or fixed mass meeting so that the people would experience a way of unity. v. Propaganda a. Germany i. Minister of Propaganda in Nazi Germany was Goebbels. He was an able man, with enormous aims. Not only wanted he the people to accept the regime. He wanted them to capitulate to them, grasping the ideology. He, for the first time in history, effectively made use of the radio and press. He seized control over both. By 1932 less then 25% of the population owned a radio. Hence, he made provisions for producing cheap sets of wireless radios. He called it the Volksempfà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nger, translated, nation-receptionist. The press seemed harder to control. The Nazi publisher-Eher Verlag-bought many of the 4,700 existing newspapers. Goebbels held a daily press conference and eventually, the Editors Law, made the seizure of the press complete. Via the radio, the Aryan race was emphasized. Jewish music was not played. People were constantly bombed with Nazi propaganda, their ideology. b. Italy i. Mussolini wanted to create an image of the new Italian. This image should be aggressive and patriotic. He also used heroic figurers from the wars to illustrate the alleged superiority of the Italian nation. vi. Police State a. Germany i. The party seemed to be well organized and structured. Hitler himself, however, rejected any document work. Now the question appears, how it was so sufficient? The answer is that a powerful force was acting behind the scenes. This force was the army. It consisted of the SS, short for Schutz-Staffel, the SA, short for Sturm-Abteilung, the Gestapo, known for its brutality and later the SD, Sicherheitsdienst, the party internal police force. All these acted in order to maintain or restore order. The SS was once created to be Hitlers personal bodyguard. It evolved to be a unit with incredible power over, economic, political and social matters. It turned out to be an extremely useful tool for Hitler. b. Italy i. The military was also guaranteed a supreme status in Italy. However, the German army had become a political power whereas the Italian had not. After the death of Hindenburg, Hitler was able to benefit from an exclusive oath. Mussolini never had such an opportunity under the still existing Monarchy. The Italian Military acted with divided loyalties. The Italian army did not face any threats form party-army-type organizations, as opposed to the German SS and SA. vii. Power of the Leader a. Germany/Italy i. Both, der Fà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½hrer and il duce, were charismatic and ambitious men. They had a set aim which they wanted to achieve no matter what the cost was. They managed to elate masses so that they would virtually believe anything they said. These are, among others, characteristics a strong Leader must have in order to be successful. Hitler was not only appointed chancellor but became President after Hindenburgs death. He also appointed himself Chief-Commander of all armed forces. This gave him the mere control over many bodies. i. Weigh factors against each other a. Germany vs. Italy ii. Conclusion a. When looking back at my research and all the information I collected during it, I think it is fair to say that both ideologies and those implementing it, transformed the respective countries to a large extent into totalitarian regimes. Although, I would say that this phenomena did not occur in the conventional way. By definition, a totalitarian regime controls every aspect of life. When looking at the moment they came to power and the day they left, a great difference in many senses can be seen. Especially, when looking at how they controlled the peoples minds. Propaganda, Force, Speeches, youths and discrimination are all factors, which increased their influence. This integrated so quickly into the respective countries roots, so that it was inevitable that people would eventually believe what they heard. They would also obey by it because they the how brutal their measures could be. Power conveyed and achieved by force was one feature in these regimes. The other means was propaganda. New technology, new innovations enabled them to convey their messages and slogans whenever they wanted. They could also reach every member of their community. They not only controlled adults. One of their ideas was to transform the young so that their ideology would be carried further with the next generation. 1 http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionaryva=Nazism 2 http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionaryva=fascism 3 http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?book=Dictionaryva=totalitarian

How Much Did Stalin Deviate From Marxism?

How Much Did Stalin Deviate From Marxism? Joseph Stalin can be, and has been, interpreted in many different ways; a sadistic terrorist who revelled in the misfortune and pain of his subjects, an egotistical dictator whose every action served to promote his own self-interests, the political servant of Vladimir Lenin, and the man who translated Communism into practical terms. Despite this being a political and ideological study, in the case of Stalin it becomes impossible to consider his interpretation of Marxist-Leninism and his consequent leadership style without judgement of his character. The influence of his personality upon his leadership can be said to a primary motivation for many of the decisions which have been made, including the impact of his tumultuous home life with regards to his wife and children, his desire to assert himself as a credible and important man which was perhaps inspired by his feelings of neglect from his father, and the increasing loneliness that came from his intense paranoia and fear of those a round him. In an ideological sense, Stalins policies are indeed deviations from those which Lenin himself might have implemented, however yet again this may be as a consequence of the differing personalities of the two leaders. This study will aim to assess Stalinism as an ideology up to 1938, the end of The Great Terror and question whether it indeed deviated from Marxist-Leninism, whether it was instead a practical implementation of Communism in which communism principles ran through the core, or whether it was a whole different ideology, brought to power on a false platform of Communism. In order to make such assessments there must be a standard set of what Marxist Leninism is. In the same way that Stalin could be said to have interpreted Marxist-Leninism, Lenin interpreted Marxism. Thus Marxist-Leninism forms a filtered version of Marxs original theories. The key principles of Communism in Marxist terms, as laid out in the Communist Manifesto, written in 1847 by Karl Marx, are as follows; abolition of private property, progressive or graduated income tax, abolition of all rights of inheritance, confiscation of the property of all emigrants, centralisation of credit, national bank and an exclusive monopoly, centralisation of communication and transport, extension of centralisation of factories and production by the state, cultivation of waste-lands and the improvement of the soil, equal liability of all to work, combination of agriculture with manufacturing industries, free education and religion and nationalities will be superseded by the principle of community.   [1]  Following on from this, Lenin proposed that the proletariat can successfully achieve revolutionary consciousness only under the leadership of a party of professional revolutionaries  [2]  , thereby reversing Marxs order of economics over politics  [3]  , where aims are achieved with internal democratic centralism, wherein policy decisions are agreed via democracy and every member must support and promote the agreed party policy, essentially a dictatorship of the proletariat government  [4]  . Lenin agrees with Marxs ideas concerning nationalism and religion, citing them as part of the false consciousness instilled by the bourgeoisie in facilitating exploitation. It was under Lenin the notion of a dictatorial state and a class war came about, marked changes from Marxs own ideologies. As Lenin said, One cannot be a revolutionary Social-Democrat without participating, according to ones powers, in developing this theory [Marxism] and adapting it to changed conditions.   [5]  Thus whilst Marxism heavily influenced Leninism, the latter is a distinctly different adaptation, arguably one which made the October revolution in 1917 possible. Stalinism as a term came to be, in light of one of Stalins associates claim, Lets replace Long Live Leninism with Long Live Stalinism!  [6]  Whilst Stalinism has been said to refer to a style of governance, key principles wherein the supposed deviations from Marxist-Leninism can be found include, economic policy, collectivisation, use of violence, the rise of bureaucracy and the development of the personality cult. Deciphering what Lenin or Marx would have done is impossible, and indeed the term Marxist-Leninism was coined and used by opposing political groups within 1930s Russia as the ideology which they stood to defend. Regardless, this study aims to assess the extent to which Stalinism and the key principles of his rule up to the end of The Great Terror were informed by Marxist-Leninism theology. The new economic policy (henceforth NEP) brought forth by Lenin in 1921, was dramatically overhauled through Stalins wave of economic reforms in the early 1930s. Known as the Great Turn, this saw a total transformation of agricultural and industrial economic handling within Russia. However despite initially provoking criticism from Trotsky and other members of the Left Opposition, who felt a more internationalist approach to revamping the economy would be appropriate, Stalin and Bukharin had been supporters of the NEP, stating that they believed that it was patriotic and would further Soviet influence and impact in the international system  [7]  . The reasons for Stalins apparently hypocritical U-turn may on some levels simply be practical responses to crises and yet can simultaneously be interpreted as Stalins first foray into the development of Stalinism. The NEP had secured the rights of individual peasants to sell their products freely, whether to private traders or to state agencies. Whilst the state controlled all large enterprises, such as factories, mines and railways, small private enterprises (those employing fewer than 20 people) were allowed. The requisitioning of farm produce was in turn replaced by a tax system and the peasants were free to sell their surplus, albeit at a state-regulated price  [8]  . The NEP had been Lenins attempt to ensure the survival of the Communist state following War Communism which had been implemented from 1914 to 1921, to coincide with World War 1 and the Russian Civil War, and to try and rebuild Soviet production to its pre-1914 levels. It is undeniable to regard the NEP as a concession of key communist values, and indeed Lenin himself saw it as a strategic retreat  [9]  . This development of a relative mixed-economy was justified as a form of state capitalism, the last stage of capitalism before socialism evolved.  [10]  The Grain Crisis of 1928 was arguably the impetus for Stalin to revoke the NEP. As more peasants began consuming their own goods, as opposed to purchasing the overpriced ones which the small private enterprises were producing, (Peasants controlled 3,140,000km ², divided into 25 million holdings, producing 85% of the food, but consuming 80% of what the grew  [11]  ), a 2 million ton shortfall of grain occurred in 1928. Requisitioning was launched, leading to a higher expected rate of industrialisation and as a consequence higher agricultural production as more grain was required to feed a growing industrial work force and to pay for imports of machinery through exportation. Collectivisation was escalated beyond the levels of Sovkhozes encouraged during the NEP era. There can be little doubt that revoking the NEP was a deviation from Lenins aims, however questions must be asked about the purpose of such a change, whether Stalin ever supported the policy and to what extent was his ultimate rejection of the NEP was in keeping with Communist principles. The purpose of the change is in practical terms a reaction to the Grain Crisis, arguably caused by the greed of the kulaks. However the forced requisitioning opened the doors to other more revolutionary forms of governance. The persecution of the bourgeois and the kulaks intensified as Stalin encouraged the blaming of them for the short fall in grain and consequent economic situation. Enterprises across the board became subject to greater instruction and supervision as the state steadily expanded state capital accumulation thus developing a forced rate of industrialisation. The internal party regime was further tightened and show trials were resumed against surviving leaders of rival parties. An offensive began against every kind of nationalist tendency. The boundaries of cultural expression were drastically reduced and organised religion became the object of violent assault  [12]  . In his initial input in attempts to rectify the grain crisis, Stalin provided a route for an esca lated governmental involvement, thereby centralising the Russian state, marginalising and persecuting minority groups, and increasing industrialisation expectations. As Service says, Although agriculture had been the focal point of Stalins initiative in January 1928, he associated himself with a much larger agenda Industry, schooling, urban construction and socialist indoctrination were to be prioritised. The state was to become more penetrative and the traditional attachments to religion and nationhood were to disappear. Whether Stalin ever really supported Lenins NEP is essentially questioning whether Stalin intended manipulate the situation in the way that he did. Speaking out in support of the NEP he claimed Either we do it, or we shall be crushed, referring to the need to compete with western industrial levels. It is highly plausible, particularly given his industrial drive which remained for the entirety of his leadership, that Stalins belief that industrial supremacy superseded any economic compromises which may need to be made in order to achieve this. When the NEP wasnt proving to be as successful in producing an industrially prosperous nation, merely bringing it back from the poverty line, a change in strategy would seem to be an appropriate step. However, Stalin lived for Bolshevism  [13]  and the NEP was seen by many to be an interim measure  [14]  regardless. His support for the NEP was probably not due to the dubiously capitalist elements or the relinquishment of state control, b ut through a devotion to Lenin and belief in his ability to lead, the fact that supporting the NEP established him as part of the inner circle along with Bukharin, and therefore casting aside Trotsky and other detractors, was likely to have been an additional benefit of expressing his support for this policy. The NEP could not have been classified as a policy borne from strictly Communist principles, defying abolition of private property and centralisation of factories and production by the state elements of the Communist manifesto. This particular policy is a practical compromise of communist principles, deemed necessary in order to rescue the failing economy. In many ways, this may seem to suggest that communist economic management principles are conducive to a successful economy, with capitalist elements used as a rescue method. However, upon Stalins intervention in 1928, and the subsequent Five Year Plans, which projected capital goods were to increase by 161% and consumer goods by 83%, expectations which were surpassed, the opposite is thus suggested. The question whether a state directed economy or a free-market produce the most successful economy is one which is virtually impossible to answer, given the instability, and varying contributing factors to the economy in question. Howev er, the NEP, whilst not strictly adhering to Communist principles, and thus irritating the Left Opposition and other strict factions of the Communist party, undeniably rescued the economy in the wake of War Communism, whether it could have been saved in another way is a different question, yet the NEP remains a practical concession which arguably must have been made in order to go on to implement other aspects of Communism. As Lenin said, We are taking one step backward to later take two steps forward. The notion of collective farming had existed since the Russian Revolution, yet it was under Stalins rule, and in reaction to the Grain Crisis, that collectivisation as a policy really took hold and was implemented on serious levels. The unpopularity which requisitioning of the apparent missing grain had had led to a lower grain production, primarily due to hoarding and illegal transfers. By November 1929, the central committee had elected to implement accelerated collectivisation in the form of kolkhozes and Sovkhozes. A primary example of the escalation which Stalins ending of the NEP allowed, collectivisation was in principle in keeping with the Communist ideal. However, the manner in which it was done, and the consequences which unfolded after and the subsequent management must be evaluated in terms of whether the actions taken were deviations from Marxist-Leninism, or the implementation of a long held policy. The Communist manifesto states that cultivation of waste lands improvement of the soil equal liability for all to work [and] agricultural armies are a key part in communism, similarly the 1919 party programme specified that all the working masses without exception must be induced to take part in the work of state administration  [15]  . Whilst collectivisation was not specifically mentioned, the idea of complete state ownership of the land with all agricultural workers working together for a common goal remained prevalent. The Kolkhoz charter, produced in 1930, establishes the kolkhoz as a form of agricultural production cooperative of peasants that voluntarily unite for the purpose of join agricultural production based on collective labour and goes on to assert that the kolkhoz is managed according to the principles of socialist self-management, democracy and openness, with active participation of the members in decisions concerning aspects of internal life  [16]  . This pro jected utopia appears to be similar to the one which Lenin himself advocated, as Grant says Lenin always advocated the collectivisation of agriculture gradually and by voluntary means. But he never entertained the mad idea that millions of scattered peasant holdings could be forced to collectivise overnight at gun-point. Collectivisation was to take place through example. The peasant was to be convinced by patient argument and through the setting up of model collective farms and the introduction of the latest modern technology, tractors, fertilisers, electricity and schools  [17]  . However, by the end of 1928, the number of collective farms was only at 33,300, with only 2.3% of sown area in collective use. Following Stalins policy of forced collectivisation this figure rose to 85,900 collective farms, and 33.6% of sown area in collective use by 1930  [18]  , and by 1938 there were 242,400 collective farms and 99.8% of sown area in collective use  [19]  . However, a key element of the kolkhozes was the voluntary nature of them, and in order to achieve such figures, Stalin embarked on a policy of forced collectivisation, leading to estimated figures of 4 to 10 million deaths due to the poverty which ensued and the violence used to maintain this. The utopia spoke of in literary works couldnt have been more different to the manifestation of collectivisation under Stalin. Despite the high prediction levels, the first four years of forced collectivisation failed to produce, and there was indeed a fall in agricultural production which in turn led to famine. Bad production, combined with drought and arguably as a consequence of severe animosity towards the policy meant that Stalin and the authorities only persisted to increase the use of violence, implementing more grain seizures and further blaming of the class kulaks for every shortfall. In July 1929, it was official policy that terror should be avoided and that kulaks as well as the majority of peasantry ought to be enlisted in collective farms. By December 1929 Stalin announced that kulaks should be banned from becoming collective farm workers.  [20]  Stalin himself prior to this announcement had condemned the class as a whole in Pravda in November of that year saying Now we have the opportunity to carry out a resolute offensive against the kulaks, break their resistance, eliminate them as a clas s and replace their production with the production of kolkhozes and Sovkhozes Now dekulakisation is being undertaken by the masses of poor and middling peasant masses themselves who are realising total collectivisation. Now dekulakisation in the areas of total collectivisation is not just a simple administrative measure. Now dekulakisation is an integral part of the creation and development of collective farms. When the head is cut off, no-one wastes tears on the hair.  [21]  . Two months after this chillingly brutal article, the Politburo approved the liquidation of kulaks as a class. Estimates suggest that about a million kulak families (totally around five million people) were sent to the forced labour camps, or the Gulags as they were more commonly known  [22]  . Due to the kulaks only making up 1-2% of the Soviet population, and being increasingly hard to identify, the Soviet government began to cut off food rations to other social classes, particularly those where ther e was some degree of collectivisation, for example in the Ukraine. This policy can be linked to the Holodomor famine, which has repeatedly been linked to suspected genocide towards the Ukrainian people, or in a more pragmatical way, as a consequence of the economic policies implemented. The Ukraine was not alone, with the Soviet Union as a whole suffering from a famine in 1932-3. Widely negated as anti-communist propaganda, and denied even in western media at the time, the cycle of forced collectivisation and relinquishment and requisition of crops, poor pay (by 1946, 30 percent of Kolkhoz paid no cash for labour at all, 10.6 percent paid no grain, and 73.2 percent paid 500 grams of grain or less per day worked  [23]  ), hoarding which then led to a shortfall of grain production, which then instigated another requisition of grain. In an attempt to prevent the hoarding, the Law of the Spikelets was enacted on August 7, 1932, and confiscation of unlimited amounts of grain from pea sant households was allowed. Taking food was considered theft of socialist property and could result in punishment by death, or a ten-year prison sentence. Even children could be shot for picking up leftover grain in the fields. 125,000 sentences were passed for this particular offence in the bad harvest period from August 1932 to December 1933  [24]  . The corruption and brutality of the Soviet government extended beyond human lives, with the prices paid for produce hardly changing between 1929 and 1953, meaning that the State did not pay even one third of the cost of production, charging wholesalers 335 rubles for 100 kg of rye, but paid the kolkhoz roughly 8 rubles. The business of collectivisation proved to be a massive money-making experience for the Soviet government, and one which looked set to continue to prosper, for the State at least, for a great many years. As until 1969, all children born on a collective farm were forced by law to work there as adults unless they we re specifically given permission to leave, which as is to be expected, was very rarely. Despite the October revolution aiming to release the peasants from the hold of the bourgeoisie, a system of neo-serfdom existed, where the Communist bureaucracy replaced the former landowners. As Trotsky criticised, In these conditions an exaggeratedly swift collectivisation took the character of an economic adventure  [25]  . Whilst Trotsky should be expected to criticise Stalin, Service agrees predominantly with Trotskys assertion; social and ideological goals would also be served through mobilisation of the peasants in a cooperative economic enterprise which would produce higher returns for the State and could serve a secondary purpose of providing social services to the people. Thus, the policy of collectivisation and the devastation which it reaped struggles to be seen as merely a practical implementation of the collectivisation policy spoken of by Marx and Lenin. Indeed, the voluntary n ature of the initial policy hadnt produced much support, but the manner in which this support was forced upon the Soviet people, produced even less. The brutal nature of the policies and punishments and lack of acknowledgement of the effects forced a wedge between the peasants and the Soviet government. The utopia depicted within the Marxist-Leninism ideal of collectivisation, and whilst this may have not been achievable in practical terms, Stalins alternative, deviated so much from the basic principle of what collectivisation is that it became unidentifiable. It wasnt enough to simply apply an outcome to achieve the utopia, the philosophy and methods, i.e. the voluntary nature, had to be broadly shared amongst the Soviet people. As it was, the lack of this fundamental practice turned the whole policy into a variant of the serfdom which Communism strove to eliminate and thus undermined the notion of Stalinism being a practical implementation of Marxist-Leninism ideas. The key issue within collectivisation was the replacement of the old bourgeoisie with the bureaucrats of the Soviet government. The rise of bureaucracy was clearly an issue, as there was an increase in the difference between the living standards of the working class and the upper layers of the bureaucracy in particular  [26]  . Comprised primarily by the poor economic state of the working class in consequence of collectivisation, yet the bureaucrats acquisition of wealth furthered this gulf, the Soviet state began to represent the antithesis of what Marx and Lenin had proposed. Whilst it is generally acknowledged that those at the top of the party benefited financially and personally from their role, potentially leading to corruption and manipulation of their own purpose, it becomes interesting to see how such an issue developed. As early as 1920, Lenin said that ours is a workers state with bureaucratic deformations  [27]  , hauntingly similar parallels can be drawn with the policy of collectivisation. Issues which were around, and in some cases encouraged, during Lenins time, found themselves becoming colossal under the reign of Stalin. Whether the bureaucratisation of the party apparatus was simply an extension of Lenins own leadership, whether it would classify as a deviation or whether it was indeed a wholly new policy, must be examined. The Leninist programme for 1917 included the following points regarding state and bureaucracy: the discontinuance of the police and the standing army, abolition of the professional bureaucracy, elections for all public positions and offices, revocability of all officials, equality of bureaucratic wages with workers wages, the maximum of democracy, peaceful competition amongst parties within the soviets and abolition of the death penalty. As the Italian revolutionary Berneri says prior to his death in 1937, Not a single one of these points in this programme has been achieved.  [28]  Whilst Berneri was heavily critical of Stalin as a leader and so his judgement may be impacted by his own dislike for the man, several elements of the Leninist programme were undeniably ignored, or at least undermined, by the actualities of Stalinist bureaucracy. In a speech in 1931, Stalin spoke of the happy life of the people of the Soviet Union. At this time the workers living standards were sub-sta ndard, and the wages of the workers remained depressed throughout the 1930s, despite the colossal gains of the first two Five Year Plans. Yet the happy life was a reality for millions of officials in the state and Communist party; they lived very well. In addition to the other privileges of provisions and lodgings, a new network of closed distributors was established and restaurants were reserved for the use of high Communist or non-Party officials. Then special state shops were set up for their exclusive use. In these shops one could buy anything and everything but at prices no worker could afford  [29]  . This development created an upper class in a state where there was to be no class divisions, with Lenins maximum of democracy aimed to prevent such a sector developing. Lenin saw that the existence of wage differentials was a survival of capitalism that would tend to disappear as society moved towards socialism. The development of the productive forces would be accompanied by a general improvement of living standards and the inequalities would tend to decrease.  [30]  Despite the chasm of difference between Lenins envisaged state and Stalins realisation, Lenin himself admitted that the state he lead did include bureaucratic deformations. However the deformations were trivial compared to the tiered state which formed in consequence of Stalins encouragement. His dictatorship style of leadership, which allowed him to weed out the members of the Party which disagreed with him allowed him to create a circle of peers who were able to reap the benefits which collectivisation and industrialisation allowed. The crux of the argument rests within the debate of whether Marxist-Leninism was ever a foreseeable policy and whether there was an alternative Communist state than the one which Stalin oversaw. Several key historians claim that Stalins actions were the inevitable continuation of Leninism and there is some evidence to support this. Richard Pipes declares Stalinism the natural consequence of Leninism, as Stalin faithfully implemented Lenins domestic and foreign policy programmes  [31]  . Edvard Radzinsky similarly acknowledges that Stalin, as he claimed himself, was the real follower of Lenin  [32]  . Robert Service, whilst on the whole condemning the extent of Stalins rule concedes that personally he remained devoted to Lenin and his rule and conserved and reinforced the Leninist regime and this was reflected in Stalins whole-hearted attempts to elevate the memory of Lenin to somewhat of a deity and his development and insistence of Marxist-Leninism. It was under Stalins cont rol which the notion of a Marxist-Leninist ideology was popularised. Indeed the Civil War measures implemented by Lenin introduced the idea of the Red Terror and developed internment camps, Lenin was the instigator of Article 58 in 1927 which condoned the arrests of those suspected of counter-revolutionary activities. The autocratic system within the Communist party was too developed by Lenin  [33]  . Lenins ban on factions within the Russian Communist party and introduction of the one-party state in 1921 allowed Stalin to get rid of his rivals easily. In many ways, Stalin can be seen to have utilised Lenins tools; the exclusion of alternative ideologies from public life was strengthened, instruments of dictatorship, terror and a politicised judiciary were furthered with Stalins reliance upon the Gulags and trails of political competitors, such as Bukharin and Trotsky. The states economic control, whilst substansial since the Civil war, was tightened dramatically In particular, the notion of continuing the despotism evident in the earlier Soviet period, the brutal nature of the fighting within the Civil War and October Revolution providing prime examples, is clear in the use of terror as a method of control in the first two decades of Stalins rule. However there are significant criticisms saying that Stalins deviations disfigured Marxist-Leninism beyond recognition. As Roy Medvedev says one could list the various measures carried out by Stalin that were actually a continuation of anti-democratic trends and measures implemented under Lenin in so many ways, Stalin acted, not in line with Lenins clear instructions but in defiance of them. Likewise, Isaac Deutscher, in his biography on Trotsky claims that only the blind and deaf could be unaware of the contrast between Stalinism and Leninism  [34]  . A more modern criticism comes from Graeme Gill, Stalinism was not a natural flow-on of earlier developments; it formed a sharp break resulting from conscious decisions by leading political actors  [35]  . The totalitarian perspective that the negative facets of Stalinism were inherent in Communism from the start is perpetually undermined by attempts to distance Stalinism from Leninism; Trotsky

The Iran-Contra Affair :: American America History

The Iran-Contra Affair The tangled U.S. foreign-policy scandal known as the Iran-contra affair came to light in November 1986 when President Ronald Reagan said yes to reports that the United States had secretly sold arms to Iran. He said that the goal was to improve relations with Iran, not to get releases of U.S. hostages held in the Middle East by terrorists (although he later agreed that the arrangement had in fact turned into an arms-for-hostages swap). People spoke out against dealings with the hostile Iranian government all over the place. Later in November, Att. Gen. Edwin Meese discovered that some of the arms profits had been used to aid the Nicaraguan "contra" rebels at a time when Congress had prohibited such aid. An Independent special prosecutor, former federal judge Lawrence E. Walsh, was appointed to investigate the activities of persons involved in the arms sale or contra aid or both, including marine Lt. Col. Oliver North of the National Security Council (NSC) staff. Reagan appointed a review board headed by former Republican senator John Tower. The Tower commission's report in February 1987 criticized the president's passive management style. In a nationaly televised address on March 4, Reagan accepted the reports judgement without serious disagreement. Select committees of the Senate (11 members chaired by Democrat Daniel K. Inouye of Hawaii) and the house of representatives (15 members, headed by another Democrat, Lee Hamilton of Indiana) conducted televised hearings in partnership from May to August. They heard evidence that a few members of the NSC staff set Iran and Nicaragua policies and carried them out with secret private operatives and that the contras received only a small part of the money. Former national security advisor John Poindexter stated that he personally authorized the diversion of money and withheld that information from the president. William J. Casey, the director of the Central Intelligence Agency, who died in May 1989, was implicated in some testimony. His testomony still remained in doubt. Clearly however, the strange events shook the nation's faith in President Reagan and ruined U. S. prestige abroad. Special prosecutor Walsh continued his investigation. On March 11, 1988 Poindexter's forerunner as national security advisor Robert McFarlane pleaded guilty to criminal charges of witholding information from Congress on secret aid to the contras. A year later, Peter McFariane was fined $20,000 and given two years probation. On March 16, 1988, a federal grand jury indicted North, Poindexter, and two other persons on a number of

Rob Parsons -Promote Not Promote

This report presents an independent analysis addressing the insights for important management issues associated with performance appraisal and performance management in the Capital Market Services of Morgan Stanley. The analysis will be focused on identifying the major problems, analyzing the situations, and making feasible and thorough recommendations for the board of Morgan Stanley to improve the existing situations. 2. Problem Statements. Rob Parson was a star producer in the Capital Market Services Department who had been recruited from a competitor two years ago and had generated substantial revenues since joining the firm.I would like to address more specific and surface problems for this situation as follows: 2. 1 Problem 1 -Rob Parson's Performing Issues. Parson's success at generating business was offset by performance reviews from internal co-workers that painted him as a poor fit in the firm's collaborative culture. Parson's performance issues had been making his two immed iate supervisors, Paul Nasr, the senior managing director in early 1996 and Gary Stuart, the just promoted managing director in early 1997 faced the dilemma whether to promote Rob Parson as managing director. 2. Problem 2 -Rob as Irreplaceable Staff. Stuart felt certain that Parson would leave the firm if he was not promoted in 1997. This would mean losing a valuable employee and a star producer and creating an empty seat in an area important for the firm's business. Morgan Stanley needed Parson to attain the firm's strategic business objectives and even Stuart felt strongly that Parson would be impossible to replace. 2. 3 Problem 3 – Little consensus for the 360-degree evaluation process The purpose of 360-degree evaluation is to emphasize teamwork, cooperation, and cross selling.However, there was little consensus on what the 360-degree evaluation actually meant in practice since its implementation in 1993. 3 Issues / Problem Analysis. It is doubt that the 360 degree perfor mance evaluation process at Morgan Stanley yield data that were valid and reliable. It is critical to figure out whether the 360 degree performance management system well aligned with Morgan Stanley's strategic objectives. It is also important to verify the two performance evaluation results and bjectively induce the implications so that Gary or the board could effectively manage the situation. 3. 1 Not a real 360 degree performance review @ Nasr's time. The performance comment â€Å"raw data† including the quantitative, qualitative, and anecdotal — none of which is perfectly consistent from the 360 process. It is doubt that raters knew how to effectively participate in the process and the Paul knew how to use the data. There was no indication of rater's interaction with Parson and how each rater's rating contributed to the average scores shown on Summary of Performance Ratings.The arithmetic average for the collage average score is 3. 6, how ever the overall rate is a t 2. 8. It seems that quiet a number of Parson's supervisor and colleagues were admiring his cross-selling skill but it was hard to tie to the result of Downward Average 3. 0 and colleague Average of 3. 7. What were the criteria to evaluate item 4A in the Summary of Performance Ratings. -Team Player Skill and how the comments from Parson's supervisors and colleague tied to the average rating.Rater Parson E's comments in the â€Å"Development Recommendation† sections did not include concrete example but just stating rather subjective observations and feelings. The rates were not interpretable and there was no scale identification for the rates. What a 2. 0 different was from a 4. 0 average score? What were the benchmarks? There was no explicit indication of management's expectations for Parson, such as specific sales target and customer satisfaction index that are measurable and be able to described in concrete terms.It seems that there was no prior communication of the expect ations of the key performance indicators with specific values to Parson. There was no attempt to think deep the unique qualities of Parson that bring him to achieve excellent business sales. There were no indications of key success factors for Parsons that would link to the performance evaluation process. There was inherited bias from Nasr that he treated Parson harsher because he wanted to show to everybody in Morgan Stanley that he would not treat a subordinate who was hired from his previous life better. . 2 Improved 360 degree performance review @ Gary's time In early 1997 during Gary Stuart's time – A â€Å"revised† performance review â€Å"raw data† including the quantitative, qualitative, and anecdotal was come up in different ways. The process had been improved when compared with the last year exercise in the following ways: Indication of involvement from each rater and excludes the ratings from evaluators who had limited interaction with Parson when com ing up with average score in every performance criteria to ensure fair evaluation.Indication of rating scale from 1-6 and with interpretations for each rating. However, there is no in-depth explanation on how to define Top 10%, Top 20% and Top 50% etc. Each rater provided a rating with corresponding comments and valid examples for each performance requirements category Elimination of the â€Å"Team Player† rating which was previous seen as a subjective and board term. However, the review showed an extraordinary amount of Parson's progress on the team player front by examples. The overall rating from downward and colleague at 5 and 5. respectively which is in the category of Outstanding -Top 20% It was mentioned by Stuart that he need to deal with the politics in the firm, it is time to think of whether Parson was confronting the culture or he a gear to help the firm to change some of the rooted culture. 3. 3 What are the alternatives? After illustrating the underlying causes of the problems, we have to consider whether the efforts Parson had made were sufficient to be promoted, promoting Parson would mobilizing a lot of support from within the firm. The main alternatives are as follows: * Be prepared to search Parson # 2 for replacement and fire Parson. No to promote and increase payment for Parson and let him tender his resignation. * Promote Parson to the managing director and further motivate and develop his weak area. 4 ;Solutions and Recommendations. Morgan Stanley changed its corporate strategy to focus on being a â€Å"one-firm† firm, the use of the 360 degree performance evaluation procedures at Morgan Stanley has been designed to reinforce the change in culture which is now emphasizing teamwork, corporation, and cross selling. The firm should reward those who acting in accordance with the mention notions as well as great business generators.The main purposes of carrying out an efficient 360 degree performance assessment in Morgan Stanley are to develop, to manage and to pay ;amp; promote. The effectiveness of the performance assessment did affect the job satisfaction of Parson and the organization effectiveness. Therefore, it is critical to come up with a fair judgment for Parson, review and improve for any loop holes in the existing performance assessment process. I would like to recommend promoting Parson to the managing director, further motivating, rewarding and developing his weak areas.It was hard to compare the results from 2 consecutive years because it is meaningless to use some misleading or ill-defined rates from @ Nasr's time and compare to a more representative set of result this year. However, the revised process in the recent year provided more sensible data, it is worthwhile to focus on the review result of this year as decision making base. The Summary of Performance Ratings and Distribution showed that nearly all (except 33% of his supervisor rate 3 for leadership and management skills) Parson's s upervisors rated 4 to 6 for all 4 perspectives include the Overall Downward.These implied most of the Parson's higher up did recognize Parson's contributions. It should be easier to mobilize a consensus on Parson Promotion this year. The management needed to reconsider the motivation elements and to come up with a through career development plan for Parson rather than just focus on using the review result as a promotion justifications. Actions Plans: * A constructive and through feedback session to be held by Stuart with Parson and mentioned that he will be promoted to the managing director on condition that Parson need to further improvement on certain areas from leadership and management skills.Quote concrete example for his weak areas. * Make sure a detail job specifications (expectations) and key performance index for the managing director position be in placed. To communicate management's expectation to Parson clearly. * To carry out after promotion review with Parson in three months time and make sure he will still be in good shape after his promotion. * Stuart has to tender a promotion recommendations report to the management with support and firm tone that Parson is ready to promote based on this year's performance assessment results. * To involve those being rated in the development of the rating scheme.Continuous to carry out performance appraisals training to make sure all the staff understands the logic behind. To fine tune the process with more specific definition for each of the ratings. In conclusion, with proper implementations, a 360 degree performance assessment process can provide a more accurate assessment of an employee's performance and help eliminate accusations of favoritism. It will definitely lead to continuous learning, team building, growing self-confidence and improved productivity. I look forward seeing a more constructive and productive team lead by Parson in the coming future.

Future of Food Essay

In the passed couple of decades, the foods we deem to be natural or of the Earth are instead Genetically Engineered. The term Genetically Engineered does not mean that the entire vegetable or food is fake but rather means that there is at least one genetically modified ingredient in the food that is sold all over stores, which raises a great health concern for many people. In the feature production of the documentary known as The Future of Food looks at how modern day technology has changed the food we consume and the effects it can have on our health. In watching this film about all the advancements that science has come to in the world with the food being eaten everyday, both the positive and negative effects of all those technological changes, its only right to think of the countries that barely have enough food in general or the people who are losing their livelihoods because of the advancements created by science in first world countries. A first world country like the United States has not only a great amount but also lots of variety of nutrition; however, even this is still not enough to â€Å"satisfy† such a wealthy nation because steps are still being taken to continue to â€Å"improve† nature. Projects were done that helped produce corn in all kinds of different colors and creating bigger than normal sized strawberries. A question seems to arise, is all this technological advancement necessary? Are we as a society taking unnecessary measures to â€Å"fix† something that is natural and worked since the beginning of time? In the medical world, many health problems have been examined where food and nutrition were identified as partial contributors to the problem. This film helped in explaining how enzymes are used to knick corn DNA and how foreign DNA was then presented into the corn cell walls. Consuming the genetically modified corn caused allergic reactions and stirred a health concern about labeling genetically modified foods. In my particular opinion it should be the people’s right to know whether the food they’re ingesting has been altered genetically or tempered with from its natural state. Nevertheless, this does not belittle the question as to why it is necessity to alter the food in the first place. In order to formulate a ground based opinion I need to weigh the positives and negatives. Natural food always has the benefit of being â€Å"natural,† however, genetically engineered foods sometimes has the advantages of looking more appealing, tasting better and/or having a longer lasting flavor. I have experienced this first hand I have grown a distaste to certain organic foods simply because they just didn’t taste nearly as good as those that are genetically engineered even though the organic foods were supposed to be fresher and of course natural. This certain taste for food could just be that I got too used to the taste of all the preservatives that go into foods. It’s interesting how I got used to chemically preserved foods and genetically engineered tastes that overtime became the good tasting ones while the healthier ones were rejected by my taste buds. Another benefit is that genetically engineered foods end up being cheaper because they have a greater resistance to environmental conditions that would normally spoil the unaltered form and are also made in quantities not given the same attention organic foods are given to be fresh and ripe. Being that they are made in greater quantity, they are available for more people for cheaper prices, becoming the food of choice. The question would be, are the quantities made and the decrease in prices good enough to outweigh the negative effects of genetically engineered food? Another point and question would be why do many countries still remain unfed and continue searching for methods to feed their fast growing populations if these genetically engineered foods are produced in such a surplus manner? Keeping the advantages of genetically engineered foods in mind, there are definitely several noteworthy disadvantages too. An advantage was the surplus of food, however, how is it a benefit if such foods are harming the body? Some would agree that it is better to feed and raise a healthy smaller sized population with natural, unaltered forms of food than to infect a large population and have them suffer from the repercussion caused by the food they had consumed. Also, most people that are not keeping up with this field of work do not know that there are these bodies that have consumed the modified foods for such prolonged time periods and have overtime probably developed immunity to the side effects the modifications can have. In these genetically engineered foods the DNA is altered, and just as changes in human DNA lead to disorders, consumption of foods with altered DNA may have the same fatal effects. Certain genetic modifications can even go as far as cause cancers and brain and organ damage. A huge disadvantage that most people do not notice, especially those who live in urban areas, is that due to the production of the genetically altered foods a lot of farmers have been put out of jobs. These farmers are not needed as much anymore because more crops can be made for cheaper and therefore they no longer make as much money on each crop they plant and sow as they once did, as was shown in Central American countries. Now days, while technology could be helping the economy by decreasing the price of foods for people, it is also harming people who depended on the unaltered food to bring them income. The U. S. economy and industry is choosing quantity over quality, which is not beneficial to our health but instead just our wallets. I believe that its not fair for people not to know what is in their foods and usually people don’t seek food that can hurt them, therefore, it was crucial that the â€Å"Genetically Engineered Right to Know† act get passed. It would allow people to know what they are consuming from the labels on the foods and therefore prevented conditions that could’ve risen from individuals allergic to a modified substance. The Department of Agriculture and the Food and Drug Administration is supposed to be on top of the foods produced and their effects. Nevertheless, it seems that genetically modified foods don’t cause enough of a significant threat in order for them to take action and stop the advancement, rather than promote it and seek ways to improve it. What would bring this matter to a flashing red alert? Though I admitted that genetically altered food does taste better, I still do not agree with the fact that I am consuming and enjoying the taste of unhealthy food. People often look for the most ripe fruits and healthy looking vegetables when they go shopping, but for a lot of produce these bigger fruits and vegetables end up being the modified ones. Though I personally have only been able to see the advantages of these foods, I realize that the disadvantages outweigh the benefits of having genetically modified foods. From a realistic point of view, being a student on a low budget it would be unpractical for me to purchase anything but the cheap genetically altered food. Looking even at the bigger picture, many individuals and families have the same outlook I do. Therefore, many people may be against the genetic modification of food, yet not much course of action will be taken. People are comfortable with their life styles, making the cases and effects of modified foods not seem like such a big deal. This shows that the wrong approach is probably being taken to bring this to significant awareness. To promote foods that are not going to be altered, there needs to be ways to produce the same great quantities and keep prices affordable under the economic conditions of the country and the budget of the average American Family. It was crucial to pass an act that will help identify the genetically engineered goods but still it is not sufficient enough to solve the issue at hand. This matter is truly a very controversial issue, containing both pros and cons; therefore, we as a government and a knowledgeable society we need to take a stand and incorporate more ideas in to solving this domestic problem.

Personality Theorists

Personality Theorists Joseph M. Fowler27 Apr 04Personality TheoriesJudy PowersMelanie Klein (1882 -1960):She started the shift in emphasis away from studying innate biological instincts and towards relations between people. She described how, primarily because of anxiety over aggressive impulses, children split objects and feelings into good and bad aspects in an effort to retain good ones as part of the self while getting rid of bad ones by projecting them onto others. Splitting of an object image into opposites in the internal world of fantasy permits children to treat the internalized object as clearly good or bad while continuing to trust and love the actual external person who is an intricate combination of both. Children attempt to keep the good feelings and project the bad feelings onto others. Eventually, the split between the nurturing and the frustrating mother becomes the starting point of a child's concept of "good me" and "bad me".Defies Astronomers theoriesThis spitting can often cloud a chi ld's subjective and objective perception and lead to distortion with other people.Our personality is shaped by our relationships with significant others in object relations theory. She thinks that we begin life with certain predispositions but with not real sense of self or identity. Through interactions with significant others, we take into ourselves parts of others and begin to build a self-structure.Klein was also more interested in the reality of the "inner world" than that of the " outer world" Her preference has resulted in that object relations theory has been helpful in understanding psychotherapy and the interest in object relations has become particularly important as a framework for understanding some syndromes that have become a part of our popular clinical literature.Margaret Mahler (1897 -1985):In object relations theory, human development is a lifelong process of emerging out...

If You Cant Find the Stories You Want to Read, Write Them Yourself

If You Cant Find the Stories You Want to Read, Write Them Yourself If You Can't Find the Stories You Want to Read, Write Them Yourself Shaz Kahng features in the first season of Reedsy's self-publishing podcast, Bestseller. She has worked as a research scientist, a global consulting partner, a builder of e-businesses, a brand strategist, and has led teams in several male-dominated industries. When she noticed that strong female business leaders were missing from both her career and modern fiction, she decided to fill the gap. In this article, she talks about the struggle to traditionally publish a novel deemed "market-unfriendly," and how self-publishing has given her control over her bad-ass female characters. 3) That being said, remember the importance of professionals A critical aspect of bringing my book to life was designing a compelling cover that would stand out. For that, I was fortunate enough to connect with Reedsy cover designer, Mark Thomas. I provided a design brief to Mark with the objective of having a visually striking but simple cover that conveyed the idea of the story. I did have an idea in my mind of what the cover might look like, but as we went through the design process, Mark offered up several intriguing concepts and we ended up with something far different and far better than I could have imagined. With Reedsy, I felt like I was building my own publishing team with great talents like Mark, and I absolutely enjoyed our collaboration.4) Consider all the benefits of self-publishing After speaking with other authors of self-published books (some of whom were traditionally published first), two main benefits were touted: control over your content and every aspect of how your book comes to market, and speed - it’s certainly way faster than traditionally published books. #Selfpub tip: know your target market better than anyone. The Closer has only been out for about a month, but it has gotten stellar reviews from people who are not even related to me, and I’m happy to report that my book sales have been very strong. I’m optimistic about the novel’s potential, but most importantly: I was able to bring it to the world in the way I wanted, allowing me to rebel against the traditional path and the suggestions that would have diminished the quality of my book. Self-publishing let me keep my vision intact, control my content and cover, and allowed me to get The Closer to market quickly.The Closer is available in paperback and on Amazon Kindle.Please share your thoughts, experiences, or any questions for Shaz Kahng in the comments below!

Arizona State Museum building located in the University of Arizona Essay

Arizona State Museum building located in the University of Arizona - Essay Example This will take into consideration of the context, audience and the visual impact. I hope to comprehend and convey to the reader how this type of building is designed and the type of collections of the building employ the use ethos, pathos, and ethos. Audience : My audience will be the teacher of my English class. He has in depth comprehension of rhetorical appeals, in this regard I must present my argument using the accurate knowledge of rhetoric. I am obliged to avoid advocating and generalizing. Context: My paper will be one of the papers that my teacher will read this assignment, so I have to be insightful and creative in my analysis. I have to make arguments in order to grab his attention. Outline Introduction: I plan on using my introduction to establish my own ethos as well as describe the the structure and design of the building that is being analyzed. I will describe my experience in and outside of the Arizona State Museum building which will help the reader to understand tha t I had the opportunity to analyze the building at is significance in the University of Arizona. ... Introduction When we think about teaching rhetoric and critiquing rhetorical acts, we base out thoughts on text and artifacts that are primarily oral or written. Nonetheless, our day to day experiences are saturated with the rhetorical invocation that move beyond the written word to visual. The objective of this essay is to explore the multi – modality of the rhetoric and illustrates how we think about the rhetoric on a wider perspective. The arguments regarding architecture particularly invoke this focus that deals with the nature objects, spaces and artifacts (Rosteck 45). This case study looks at one specific building known as Arizona State Museum building in order to show how this type of rhetoric takes place. Despite the distinct content of the building, the visual, textual and experimental are all used mimetically. This means that multi- model rhetoric on this site imitates the form a function of a natural history museum in order to persuade its visitors of its legitimac y. The Arizona State Museum building is the oldest and the largest anthropology museum located in the southwest region of the campus was established in 1893 by the Arizona Territorial Legislature. This building is the state’s official permitting agency for archeology and paleontologist projects. This is one of the oldest research units at the University of Arizona. It is known for hosting numerous researchers around the world and allow them to use the collection to expand their frontier of their knowledge in enthology, ethnohistory and archeology. The museum resides among several buildings. Most of these buildings look similar as they are made of stone colored concrete slabs and reflective

Military intelligence ethicist Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Military intelligence ethicist - Essay Example The first solution, of taking no action, will leave tribal warfare unchecked and rampant in the area. Without a reason to stop, the warlords will continue raising armies, hording needed supplies, and violating international law. The second solution, of extensive intervention, leaves open the possibility of all-out warring between Americans and Kapawa fighters, with untold devastation on civilian populations. The third solution, a middle ground, will commit a small contingent of American troops to fighting the violence. However, this third option may do nothing more than put American forces in harm’s way for a mission that may end up being too small to be of great effectiveness. From the consequentialist point of view, the third option of engaging in limited strikes is out of the question, insofar as it does not solve the underlying problem of warlords. The problem in the case of Kapawa is institutional, not merely an armed conflict. There are deep political and ethnographic problems in the state, which cannot be resolved by a minimal engagement on the part of American soldiers. Deciding from there, the consequentialist looks at the first option: to take no action. Although this option saves the lives of American soldiers, the loss of Kapawa life and infrastructure may be far too great of a cost. If the commander leaves the Kapawa people to deal with warlords by themselves, people will continue to die from the fighting and the resulting famine. Although help can be delivered from non-governmental entities, the underlying problem remains Logically, the second option, of full-scale intervention, makes the most sense. It eliminates the institutional and political problems affecting the Kapawa people. It gives American the opportunity to establish a stable and functioning government, and settles disputes between the warring tribes. It reestablishes the opportunity for the fair distribution of resources inside the country and

Second Language Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Second Language - Assignment Example It is noticing that ensures that input becomes intake before any processing takes place. This is a pre-requisite for the learner's integration into the developing inter-language system. Noticing thus the first stage in second language acquisition. (Gass, 1988) Balestone emphasizes on the importance of noticing by calling the "real gateway to subsequent learning". (Balestone, 1994) This has been asserted by Lynch as well who claims that noticing is the most essential ingredient of successful language learning. (Lynch, 2001) Various other researchers have marked out and pointed the importance of noticing in second language acquisition. Sharwood and Rutherford are to name a few. They believe that noticing leads to the other subsequent stages before the language is acquired in its entirety. After noticing, the processing phase takes form and once processing starts, the language gets integrated into the learner's mind. However noticing can be of various, forms. It can be in both conscious as well as unconscious states of mind. According to some authors, the assertion that "noticing the gap" is a conscious process is not right. They feel that it can't be a conscious process and there are far too many differences in languages that can be acquired consciously. It is not as simple as it looks like, but is a rather complex. Apart from this Truscott has criticized these founding's claiming that the foundations of hypothesis in cognitive psychology is weak and it can't be based on rational theory of languages. He feels that noticing is not a very legitimate and strong factor in second language acquisition. He believes that noticing is only important for the acquisition of met linguistic language which is acquiring the ability to change words, fill gaps, adapt to sentence manipulations and dictate grammar rules. Noticing acts a mediary between the input and the memory systems. Spotlight consciousness is given by short term memory and is instantiated by various influences on noticing. These are the main factors that influence noticing: Instruction, silence, task demand, perceptual silence, skills, frequency and comparing. Instruction plays an important role in laying the foundations for expectation settings about the language which are noticed by observers and adapted accordingly. Another language feature that is of considerable importance is frequency which comes up due to repeated use of the language by teachers. This helps the learner notice the features of the language and eventually learn them accordingly. Skills set required to be incommunicado for a particular language is yet another important element that assists noticing of language in humans. Q2) Corrective Feedback in Second Language Learning What are the types of feedback Different terms have been used interchangeably that identify corrective feedback in the second language acquisition literature. Some of these terms are corrective feedback, negative evidence and negative feedback. According to Chaudron (Chaudron, 1992) the word corrective feedback can be layered down to mean different things. A "treatment of error" could mean any teaching behavior that follows after an error has been made. These steps aim to inform the learner of the facts of the error. The treatment will not be observed from the student's response but it would rather work to

Conspicuous consumption Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Conspicuous consumption - Research Paper Example Tastes and preferences were the principal determinants for the purchase of lavish goods. Exceptionally luxurious products that maintained good quality where desired more. Income did not have a bearing on the decision to purchase luxurious goods, as many people were not fascinated by the price of goods. The Chinese middle class engage in conspicuous consumption so that they can maintain a high standing in the society. They are more westernized and stylish thus seeking to be more exceptional than the other Chinese. Recently, China has witnessed a steady annual growth rate of 10%. This rise has propelled China to an economic powerhouse in less than three decades. Because of China’s rise, approximately 500 million people were raised above the poverty line (Frith, 2010). The middle class did not only resort to unfeasible high-end lifestyles but also changed from a saving to a spending culture. Conspicuous consumption is more pronounced in China because it has a relatively high number of young millionaires. Chinese millionaires lie at the age of 39 years being younger than their international peers are. These millionaires consume luxury goods in order to maintain their professional relationships and high social ranks (Dorothea, M2011). Chinese people are known for bragging in society through ownership of luxurious commodities. They greatly value success, wealth, and social status through displaying expensive watches, jewelry and cars to gain respect from the commoners. Chinese ‘little emperors’ are also an important factor contributing to conspicuous consumption of luxurious goods in China. These young consumers are a result of the one child policy that was adopted in the 1970’s. Those born during that period are without siblings therefore being the focus of attention of parents (Dorothea, M2011). They were brought up as spoilt children who got what they wanted, when they wanted it. It is for this

Women politics and rights Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Women politics and rights - Essay Example Female education refers to the complex set of debates and issues that are related to the education of women across the world at all levels starting from primary to tertiary education. Female education touches on issues of gender equity and equality, access to proper education and how this is connected to the alleviation of poverty that women tend to experience (Chng, 2002). Female education also involves the issues of single-sex education and that of religious education.Most feminist movements have over time promoted the importance of all the issues that are linked to female education making the topic to be wide and making the issues to be narrowly defined by the scholars (Collins, 2009). Female education may include issues like AIDS education that equips the ladies with first-hand information on how to prevent them from being infected and affected by the deadly HIV infection. Although, in some areas, women have made it in education more than their male counterparts, like for instanc e, in the US in 2005/2006, a total percentage of 62 of women obtained associate degrees, 58 percent attained bachelor's degrees, 60 percent masters and 50 percent got their doctorate degrees. Again, the education of women with disabilities has also improved with time (Mettler, 2000). There have been calls to improve the level of education of the girl child because it has demonstrated an ability to have clear effects on the economy and the general health of young women and it improves the prospects of the women’s’ community.

President Reagan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

President Reagan - Essay Example President Reagan was a firm believer in this methodology and almost immediately set to work on dismantling government entitlement programs when he signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA). OBRA served to cut federal funding programs for the poor as well as inducements for states to provide funding. Unfortunately, cutting funding for programs was not enough to revolutionize the welfare programs in the way that conservative ideologues desired. In order to completely undermine the progressive system of entitlements to the poor, the Reagan administration began to use tax reform as a method of undercutting welfare. By cutting taxes and instituting such concepts as the Earned Income Credit, Reagan gave the appearance of helping poor families, but the tax cut gains hardly made up for the loss in benefits the poor no longer received because of cuts and changes to entitlement programs. Throughout the Reagan presidency, cuts and rollbacks to welfare programs were systematically enacted even as the income gap between the richest and poorest Americans reached peak proportions. While the wealthy were benefiting from tax cuts, the poor were actually losing ground because of them.

Conspicuous consumption Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3750 words

Conspicuous consumption - Research Paper Example Tastes and preferences were the principal determinants for the purchase of lavish goods. Exceptionally luxurious products that maintained good quality where desired more. Income did not have a bearing on the decision to purchase luxurious goods, as many people were not fascinated by the price of goods. The Chinese middle class engage in conspicuous consumption so that they can maintain a high standing in the society. They are more westernized and stylish thus seeking to be more exceptional than the other Chinese. Recently, China has witnessed a steady annual growth rate of 10%. This rise has propelled China to an economic powerhouse in less than three decades. Because of China’s rise, approximately 500 million people were raised above the poverty line (Frith, 2010). The middle class did not only resort to unfeasible high-end lifestyles but also changed from a saving to a spending culture. Conspicuous consumption is more pronounced in China because it has a relatively high number of young millionaires. Chinese millionaires lie at the age of 39 years being younger than their international peers are. These millionaires consume luxury goods in order to maintain their professional relationships and high social ranks (Dorothea, M2011). Chinese people are known for bragging in society through ownership of luxurious commodities. They greatly value success, wealth, and social status through displaying expensive watches, jewelry and cars to gain respect from the commoners. Chinese ‘little emperors’ are also an important factor contributing to conspicuous consumption of luxurious goods in China. These young consumers are a result of the one child policy that was adopted in the 1970’s. Those born during that period are without siblings therefore being the focus of attention of parents (Dorothea, M2011). They were brought up as spoilt children who got what they wanted, when they wanted it. It is for this

President Reagan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

President Reagan - Essay Example President Reagan was a firm believer in this methodology and almost immediately set to work on dismantling government entitlement programs when he signed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA). OBRA served to cut federal funding programs for the poor as well as inducements for states to provide funding. Unfortunately, cutting funding for programs was not enough to revolutionize the welfare programs in the way that conservative ideologues desired. In order to completely undermine the progressive system of entitlements to the poor, the Reagan administration began to use tax reform as a method of undercutting welfare. By cutting taxes and instituting such concepts as the Earned Income Credit, Reagan gave the appearance of helping poor families, but the tax cut gains hardly made up for the loss in benefits the poor no longer received because of cuts and changes to entitlement programs. Throughout the Reagan presidency, cuts and rollbacks to welfare programs were systematically enacted even as the income gap between the richest and poorest Americans reached peak proportions. While the wealthy were benefiting from tax cuts, the poor were actually losing ground because of them.

Cloud Computing Essay Example for Free

Cloud Computing Essay * Integrated development environment as a service (IDEaaS) In the business model using software as a service, users are provided access to application software and databases. The cloud providers manage the infrastructure and platforms on which the applications run. SaaS is sometimes referred to as â€Å"on-demand software† and is usually priced on a pay-per-use basis. SaaS providers generally price applications using a subscription fee. Proponents claim that the SaaS allows a business the potential to reduce IT operational costs by outsourcing hardware and software maintenance and support to the cloud provider. This enables the business to reallocate IT operations costs away from hardware/software spending and personnel expenses, towards meeting other IT goals. In addition, with applications hosted centrally, updates can be released without the need for users to install new software. One drawback of SaaS is that the users data are stored on the cloud provider’s server. As a result, there could be unauthorized access to the data. End users access cloud-based applications through a web browser or a light-weight desktop or mobile app while the business software and users data are stored on servers at a remote location. Proponents claim that cloud computing allows enterprises to get their applications up and running faster, with improved manageability and less maintenance, and enables IT to more rapidly adjust resources to meet fluctuating and unpredictable business demand.[2][3] Cloud computing relies on sharing of resources to achieve coherence and economies of scale similar to a utility (like the electricity grid) over a network.[4] | This article may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. (January 2013)| The origin of the term cloud computing is obscure, but it appears to derive from the practice of using drawings of stylized clouds to denote networks in diagrams of computing and communications systems. The word cloud is used as a metaphor for the Internet, based on the standardized use of a cloud-like shape to denote a network on telephony schematics and later to depict the Internet in computer network diagrams as an abstraction of the underlying infrastructure it represents. The cloud symbol was used to represent the Internet as early as 1994.[5][6] The underlying concept of cloud computing dates back to the 1950s, when large-scale mainframe became available in academia and corporations, accessible via thin clients / terminalcomputers. Because it was costly to buy a mainframe, it became im portant to find ways to get the greatest return on the investment in them, allowing multiple users to share both the physical access to the computer from multiple terminals as well as to share the CPU time, eliminating periods of inactivity, which became known in the industry as time-sharing.[7] In the 1990s, telecommunications companies, who previously offered primarily dedicated point-to-point data circuits, began offering virtual private network (VPN) services with comparable quality of service but at a much lower cost. By switching traffic to balance utilization as they saw fit, they were able to utilize their overall network bandwidth more effectively. The cloud symbol was used to denote the demarcation point between that which was the responsibility of the provider and that which was the responsibility of the users. Cloud computing extends this boundary to cover servers as well as the network infrastructure.[8] As computers became more prevalent, scientists and technologists explored ways to make large-scale computing power available to more users through time sharing, experimenting with algorithms to provide the optimal use of the infrastructure, platform and applications with prioritized access to the CPU and efficiency for the end users.[9] John McCarthy opined in t he 1960s that computation may someday be organized as a public utility. Almost all the modern-day characteristics of cloud computing (elastic provision, provided as a utility, online, illusion of infinite supply), the comparison to the electricity industry and the use of public, private, government, and community forms, were thoroughly explored in Douglas Parkhills 1966 book, The Challenge of the Computer Utility. Other scholars have shown that cloud computings roots go all the way back to the 1950s when scientist Herb Grosch (the author of Groschs law) postulated that the entire world would operate on dumb terminals powered by about 15 large data centers.[10] Due to the expense of these powerful computers, many corporations and other entities could avail themselves of computing capability through time sharing and several organizations, such as GEs GEISCO, IBM subsidiary The Service Bureau Corporation (SBC, founded in 1957), Tymshare (founded in 1966), National CSS (founded in 1967 and bought by Dun Bradstreet in 1979), Dial Data (bought by Tymshare in 1968), and Bolt, Beranek and Newman (BBN) marketed time sharing as a commercial venture. The development of the Internet from being document centric via semantic data towards more and more services was described as Dynamic Web.[11] This contribution focused in particular in the need for better meta-data able to describe not only implementation details but also conceptual details of model-based applications. The ubiquitous availability of high-capacity networks, low-cost computers and storage devices as well as the widespread adoption of hardware virtualization, service-oriented architecture,autonomic, and utility computing have led to a tremendous growth in cloud computing.[12][13][14] After the dot-com bubble, Amazon played a key role in the development of cloud computing by modernizing their data centers, which, like most computer networks, were using as little as 10% of their capacity at any one time, just to leave room for occasional spikes. Having found that the new cloud architecture resulted in significant internal efficiency improvements whereby small, fast-moving two-pizza teams (teams small enough to be fed with two pizzas) could add new features faster and more easily, Amazon initiated a new product development effort to provide cloud computing to external customers, and launched Amazon Web Service (AWS) on a utility computing basis in 2006.[15][16] In early 2008, Eucalyptus became the first open-source, AWS API-compatible platform for deploying private clouds. In early 2008, OpenNebula, enhanced in the RESERVOIR European Commission-funded project, became the first open-source software for deploying private and hybrid clouds, and for the federation of clouds.[17] In the same year, efforts were focused on providing quality of service guarantees (as required by real-time interactive applications) to cloud-based infrastructures, in the framework of the IRMOS European Commission-funded project, resulting to a real-time cloud environment.[18] By mid-2008, Gartner saw an opportunity for cloud computing to shape the relationship among consumers of IT services, those who use IT services and those who sell them[19] and observed that organizations are switching from company-owned hardware and software assets to per-use service-based models so that the projected shift to computing will result in dramatic growth in IT products in some areas and significant reductions in other areas.[20] On March 1, 2011, IBM announced the Smarter Computing framework to support Smarter Planet.[21] Among the various components of the Smarter Computing foundation, cloud computing is a critical piece. [edit] Similar systems and concepts Cloud computing shares characteristics with: * Autonomic computing — Computer systems capable of self-management.[22] * Client–server model — Client–server computing refers broadly to any distributed application that distinguishes between service providers (servers) and service requesters (clients).[23] * Grid computing — A form of distributed and parallel computing, whereby a super and virtual computer is composed of a cluster of networked, loosely coupled computers acting in concert to perform very large tasks. * Mainframe computer — Powerful computers used mainly by large organizations for critical applications, typically bulk data processing such as census, industry and consumer statistics, police and secret intelligence services, enterprise resource planning, and financial transaction processing.[24] * Utility computing — The packaging of computing resources, such as computation and storage, as a metered service similar to a traditional public utility, such as electricity.[25][26] * Peer-to-peer — Distributed architecture without the need for central coordination, with participants being at the same time both suppliers and consumers of resources (in contrast to the traditional client–server model). * Cloud gaming Also known as on-demand gaming, this is a way of delivering games to computers. The gaming data will be stored in the providers server, so that gaming will be independent of client computers used to play the game. [edit] Characteristics Cloud computing exhibits the following key characteristics: * Agility improves with users ability to re-provision technological infrastructure resources. * Application programming interface (API) accessibility to software that enables machines to interact with cloud software in the same way the user interface facilitates interaction between humans and computers. Cloud computing systems typically use REST-based APIs. * Cost is claimed to be reduced and in a public cloud delivery model capital expenditure is converted to operational expenditure.[27] This is purported to lower barriers to entry, as infrastructure is typically provided by a third-party and does not need to be purchased for one-time or infrequent intensive computing tasks. Pricing on a utility computing basis is fine-grained with usage-based options and fewer IT skills are required for implementation (in-house).[28] The e-FISCAL projects state of the art repository[29] contains several articles looking into cost aspects in more detail, most of them concluding that costs savings de pend on the type of activities supported and the type of infrastructure available in-house. * Device and location independence[30] enable users to access systems using a web browser regardless of their location or what device they are using (e.g., PC, mobile phone). As infrastructure is off-site (typically provided by a third-party) and accessed via the Internet, users can connect from anywhere.[28] * Virtualization technology allows servers and storage devices to be shared and utilization be increased. Applications can be easily migrated from one physical server to another. * Multitenancy enables sharing of resources and costs across a large pool of users thus allowing for: * Centralization of infrastructure in locations with lower costs (such as real estate, electricity, etc.) * Peak-load capacity increases (users need not engineer for highest possible load-levels) * Utilisation and efficiency improvements for systems that are often only 10–20% utilised.[15] * Reliability is improved if multiple redundant sites are used, which makes well-designed cloud computing su itable for business continuity and disaster recovery.[31] * Scalability and elasticity via dynamic (on-demand) provisioning of resources on a fine-grained, self-service basis near real-time,[32] without users having to engineer for peak loads.[33][34] * Performance is monitored, and consistent and loosely coupled architectures are constructed using web services as the system interface.[28] * Security could improve due to centralization of data, increased security-focused resources, etc., but concerns can persist about loss of control over certain sensitive data, and the lack of security for stored kernels.[35] Security is often as good as or better than other traditional systems, in part because providers are able to devote resources to solving security issues that many customers cannot afford.[36] However, the complexity of security is greatly increased when data is distributed over a wider area or greater number of devices and in multi-tenant systems that are being shared by unrelated users. In addition, user access to security audit logs may be difficult or impossible. Private cloud installations are in part motivated by users desire to retain control over the infrastructure and avoid losing control of information security. * Maintenance of cloud computing applications is easier, because they do not need to be installed on each users computer and can be accessed from different places. The National Institute of Standards and Technologys definition of cloud computing identifies five essential characteristics: On-demand self-service. A consumer can unilaterally provision computing capabilities, such as server time and network storage, as needed automatically without requiring human interaction with each service provider. Broad network access. Capabilities are available over the network and accessed through standard mechanisms that promote use by heterogeneous thin or thick client platforms (e.g., mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and workstations). Resource pooling. The provider’s computing resources are pooled to serve multiple consumers using a multi-tenant model, with different physical and virtual resources dynamically assigned and reassigned according to consumer demand. Rapid elasticity. Capabilities can be elastically provisioned and released, in some cases automatically, to scale rapidly outward and inward commensurate with demand. To the consumer, the capabilities available for provisioning often appear to be unlimited and can be appropriated in any quantity at any time. Measured service. Cloud systems automatically control and optimize resource use by leveraging a metering capability at some level of abstraction appropriate to the type of service (e.g., storage, processing, bandwidth, and active user accounts). Resource usage can be monitored, controlled, and reported, providing transparency for both the provider and consumer of the utilized service. —National Institute of Standards and Technology[4] On-demand self-service See also: Self-service provisioning for cloud computing services and Service catalogs for cloud computing services On-demand self-service allows users to obtain, configure and deploy cloud services themselves using cloud service catalogues, without requiring the assistance of IT.[37][38] This feature is listed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) as a characteristic of cloud computing.[4] The self-service requirement of cloud computing prompts infrastructure vendors to create cloud computing templates, which are obtained from cloud service catalogues. Manufacturers of such templates or blueprints include Hewlett-Packard (HP), which names its templates as HP Cloud Maps[39] RightScale[40] and Red Hat, which names its templates CloudForms.[41] The templates contain predefined configurations used by consumers to set up cloud services. The templates or blueprints provide the technical information necessary to build ready-to-use clouds.[40] Each template includes specific configuration details for different cloud infrastructures, with information about servers for specific tasks such as hosting applications, databases, websites and so on.[40] The templates also include predefined Web service, the operating system, the database, security configurations and load balancing.[41] Cloud consumers use cloud templates to move applications between clouds through a self-service portal. The predefined blueprints define all that an application requires to run in different environments. For example, a template could define how the same application could be deployed in cloud platforms based on Amazon Web Service, VMware or Red Hat.[42] The user organization benefits from cloud templates because the technical aspects of cloud configurations reside in the templates, letting users to deploy cloud services with a push of a button.[43][44] Cloud templates can also be used by developers to create a catalog of cloud services.[45] [edit] Ser vice models Cloud computing providers offer their services according to three fundamental models:[4][46] infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), and software as a service (SaaS) where IaaS is the most basic and each higher model abstracts from the details of the lower models. In 2012 network as a service (NaaS) and communication as a service (CaaS) were officially included by ITU (International Telecommunication Union) as part of the basic cloud computing models, recognized service categories of a telecommunication-centric cloud ecosystem.[47] Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) See also: Category:Cloud infrastructure In the most basic cloud-service model, providers of IaaS offer computers physical or (more often) virtual machines and other resources. (A hypervisor, such as Xen or KVM, runs the virtual machines as guests.) Pools of hypervisors within the cloud operational support-system can support large numbers of virtual machines and the ability to scale services up and down according to customers varying requirements. IaaS clouds often offer additional resources such as images in a virtual-machine image-library, raw (block) and file-based storage, firewalls, load balancers, IP addresses, virtual local area networks (VLANs), and software bundles.[48] IaaS-cloud providers supply these resources on-demand from their large pools installed indata centers. For wide-area connectivity, customers can use either the Internet or carrier clouds (dedicated virtual private networks). To deploy their applications, cloud users install operating-system images and their application software on the cloud infrastructure. In this model, the cloud user patches and maintains the operating systems and the application software. Cloud providers typically bill IaaS services on a utility computing basis: cost reflects the amount of resources allocated and consumed. Examples of IaaS providers include Amazon CloudFormation, Amazon EC2, Windows Azure Virtual Machines, DynDNS, Google Compute Engine, HP Cloud, iland, Joyent,Rackspace Cloud, ReadySpace Cloud Services, and Terremark. [edit] Platform as a service (PaaS)